The OAuth 2.1 Authorization Framework

1.3.1. Authorization Code

An authorization code is a temporary credential used to obtain an access token. Instead of the client requesting authorization directly from the resource owner, the client directs the resource owner to an authorization server (via its user agent, which in turn directs the resource owner back to the client with the authorization code. The client can then exchange the authorization code for an access token.¶

Before directing the resource owner back to the client with the authorization code, the authorization server authenticates the resource owner, and may request the resource owner's consent or otherwise inform them of the client's request. Because the resource owner only authenticates with the authorization server, the resource owner's credentials are never shared with the client, and the client does not need to have knowledge of any additional authentication steps such as multi-factor authentication or delegated accounts.¶

The authorization code provides a few important security benefits, such as the ability to authenticate the client, as well as the transmission of the access token directly to the client without passing it through the resource owner's user agent and potentially exposing it to others, including the resource owner.¶

1.3.2. Refresh Token

Refresh tokens are credentials used to obtain access tokens. Refresh tokens are issued to the client by the authorization server and are used to obtain a new access token when the current access token becomes invalid or expires, or to obtain additional access tokens with identical or narrower scope (access tokens may have a shorter lifetime and fewer permissions than authorized by the resource owner). Issuing a refresh token is optional at the discretion of the authorization server, and may be issued based on properties of the client, properties of the request, policies within the authorization server, or any other criteria. If the authorization server issues a refresh token, it is included when issuing an access token (i.e., step (2) in Figure 2).¶

A refresh token is a string representing the authorization granted to the client by the resource owner. The string is considered opaque to the client. The refresh token may be an identifier used to retrieve the authorization information or may encode this information into the string itself. Unlike access tokens, refresh tokens are intended for use only with authorization servers and are never sent to resource servers.¶

+--------+                                           +---------------+
|        |--(1)------- Authorization Grant --------->|               |
|        |                                           |               |
|        |<-(2)----------- Access Token -------------|               |
|        |               & Refresh Token             |               |
|        |                                           |               |
|        |                            +----------+   |               |
|        |--(3)---- Access Token ---->|          |   |               |
|        |                            |          |   |               |
|        |<-(4)- Protected Resource --| Resource |   | Authorization |
| Client |                            |  Server  |   |     Server    |
|        |--(5)---- Access Token ---->|          |   |               |
|        |                            |          |   |               |
|        |<-(6)- Invalid Token Error -|          |   |               |
|        |                            +----------+   |               |
|        |                                           |               |
|        |--(7)----------- Refresh Token ----------->|               |
|        |                                           |               |
|        |<-(8)----------- Access Token -------------|               |
+--------+           & Optional Refresh Token        +---------------+

The flow illustrated in Figure 2 includes the following steps:¶

1. The client requests an access token by authenticating with the authorization server and presenting an authorization grant.¶
2. The authorization server authenticates the client and validates the authorization grant, and if valid, issues an access token and optionally a refresh token.¶
3. The client makes a protected resource request to the resource server by presenting the access token.¶
4. The resource server validates the access token, and if valid, serves the request.¶
5. Steps (3) and (4) repeat until the access token expires. If the client knows the access token expired, it skips to step (7); otherwise, it makes another protected resource request.¶
6. Since the access token is invalid, the resource server returns an invalid token error.¶
7. The client requests a new access token by presenting the refresh token and providing client authentication if it has been issued credentials. The client authentication requirements are based on the client type and on the authorization server policies.¶
8. The authorization server authenticates the client and validates the refresh token, and if valid, issues a new access token (and, optionally, a new refresh token).¶

1.3.3. Client Credentials

The client credentials or other forms of client authentication (e.g. a private key used to sign a JWT, as described in [RFC7523]) can be used as an authorization grant when the authorization scope is limited to the protected resources under the control of the client, or to protected resources previously arranged with the authorization server. Client credentials are used when the client is requesting access to protected resources based on an authorization previously arranged with the authorization server.¶

2.3.1. Registration Requirements

Authorization servers MUST require clients to register their complete redirect URI (including the path component) and reject authorization requests that specify a redirect URI that doesn't exactly match one that was registered; the exception is loopback redirects, where an exact match is required except for the port URI component.¶

The authorization server MAY allow the client to register multiple redirect URIs.¶

For private-use URI scheme-based redirect URIs, authorization servers SHOULD enforce the requirement in Section 8.4.3 that clients use schemes that are reverse domain name based. At a minimum, any private-use URI scheme that doesn't contain a period character (.) SHOULD be rejected.¶

In addition to the collision-resistant properties, this can help to prove ownership in the event of a dispute where two apps claim the same private-use URI scheme (where one app is acting maliciously). For example, if two apps claimed com.example.app, the owner of example.com could petition the app store operator to remove the counterfeit app. Such a petition is harder to prove if a generic URI scheme was used.¶

Clients MUST NOT expose URLs that forward the user's browser to arbitrary URIs obtained from a query parameter ("open redirector"). Open redirectors can enable exfiltration of authorization codes and access tokens, see (#open_redirector_on_client).¶

The client MAY use the state request parameter to achieve per-request customization if needed rather than varying the redirect URI per request.¶

Without requiring registration of redirect URIs, attackers can use the authorization endpoint as an open redirector as described in Section 7.13.¶

2.3.2. Multiple Redirect URIs

If multiple redirect URIs have been registered, the client MUST include a redirect URI with the authorization request using the redirect_uri request parameter.¶

2.3.3. Preventing CSRF Attacks

Clients MUST prevent Cross-Site Request Forgery (CSRF) attacks. In this context, CSRF refers to requests to the redirection endpoint that do not originate at the authorization server, but a malicious third party (see Section 4.4.1.8. of [RFC6819] for details). Clients that have ensured that the authorization server supports the code_challenge parameter MAY rely on the CSRF protection provided by that mechanism. In OpenID Connect flows, validating the nonce parameter provides CSRF protection. Otherwise, one-time use CSRF tokens carried in the state parameter that are securely bound to the user agent MUST be used for CSRF protection (see (#csrf_countermeasures)).¶

2.3.4. Preventing Mix-Up Attacks

In order to prevent mix-up attacks (see (#mix_up)), clients MUST only process redirect responses of the authorization server they sent the respective request to and from the same user agent this authorization request was initiated with. Clients MUST store the authorization server they sent an authorization request to and bind this information to the user agent and check that the authorization response was received from the correct authorization server. Clients MUST ensure that the subsequent access token request, if applicable, is sent to the same authorization server. Clients SHOULD use distinct redirect URIs for each authorization server as a means to identify the authorization server a particular response came from.¶

2.3.5. Invalid Endpoint

If an authorization request fails validation due to a missing, invalid, or mismatching redirect URI, the authorization server SHOULD inform the resource owner of the error and MUST NOT automatically redirect the user agent to the invalid redirect URI.¶

2.3.6. Endpoint Content

The redirection request to the client's endpoint typically results in an HTML document response, processed by the user agent. If the HTML response is served directly as the result of the redirection request, any script included in the HTML document will execute with full access to the redirect URI and the credentials (e.g. authorization code) it contains. Additionally, the request URL containing the authorization code may be sent in the HTTP Referer header to any embedded images, stylesheets and other elements loaded in the page.¶

The client SHOULD NOT include any third-party scripts (e.g., third- party analytics, social plug-ins, ad networks) in the redirection endpoint response. Instead, it SHOULD extract the credentials from the URI and redirect the user agent again to another endpoint without exposing the credentials (in the URI or elsewhere). If third-party scripts are included, the client MUST ensure that its own scripts (used to extract and remove the credentials from the URI) will execute first.¶

2.4.1. Client Secret

Clients in possession of a client secret, sometimes known as a client password, MAY use the HTTP Basic authentication scheme as defined in Section 11 of [RFC9110] to authenticate with the authorization server. The client identifier is encoded using the application/x-www-form-urlencoded encoding algorithm per Appendix B, and the encoded value is used as the username; the client secret is encoded using the same algorithm and used as the password. The authorization server MUST support the HTTP Basic authentication scheme for authenticating clients that were issued a client secret.¶

For example (with extra line breaks for display purposes only):¶

Authorization: Basic czZCaGRSa3F0Mzo3RmpmcDBaQnIxS3REUmJuZlZkbUl3

In addition to that, the authorization server MAY support including the client credentials in the request content using the following parameters:¶

"client_id":

REQUIRED. The client identifier issued to the client during the registration process described by Section 2.2.¶

"client_secret":

REQUIRED. The client secret.¶

Including the client credentials in the request content using the two parameters is NOT RECOMMENDED and SHOULD be limited to clients unable to directly utilize the HTTP Basic authentication scheme (or other password-based HTTP authentication schemes). The parameters can only be transmitted in the request content and MUST NOT be included in the request URI.¶

For example, a request to refresh an access token (Section 4.3) using the content parameters (with extra line breaks for display purposes only):¶

POST /token HTTP/1.1
Host: server.example.com
Content-Type: application/x-www-form-urlencoded

grant_type=refresh_token&refresh_token=tGzv3JOkF0XG5Qx2TlKWIA
&client_id=s6BhdRkqt3&client_secret=7Fjfp0ZBr1KtDRbnfVdmIw

Since this client authentication method involves a password, the authorization server MUST protect any endpoint utilizing it against brute force attacks.¶

2.4.2. Other Authentication Methods

The authorization server MAY support any suitable authentication scheme matching its security requirements. When using other authentication methods, the authorization server MUST define a mapping between the client identifier (registration record) and authentication scheme.¶

Some additional authentication methods such as mTLS [RFC8705] and "private_key_jwt" [OpenID] are defined in the "OAuth Token Endpoint Authentication Methods" registry, and may be useful as generic client authentication methods beyond the specific use of protecting the token endpoint.¶

3.2.1. Client Authentication

Confidential clients MUST authenticate with the authorization server as described in Section 2.4 when making requests to the token endpoint.¶

Client authentication is used for:¶

• Enforcing the binding of refresh tokens and authorization codes to the client they were issued to. Client authentication adds an additional layer of security when an authorization code is transmitted to the redirection endpoint over an insecure channel.¶
• Recovering from a compromised client by disabling the client or changing its credentials, thus preventing an attacker from abusing stolen refresh tokens. Changing a single set of client credentials is significantly faster than revoking an entire set of refresh tokens.¶
• Implementing authentication management best practices, which require periodic credential rotation. Rotation of an entire set of refresh tokens can be challenging, while rotation of a single set of client credentials is significantly easier.¶

3.2.2. Token Request

The client makes a request to the token endpoint by sending the following parameters using the application/x-www-form-urlencoded format per Appendix B with a character encoding of UTF-8 in the HTTP request content:¶

"client_id":

REQUIRED, if the client is not authenticating with the authorization server as described in Section 3.2.1.¶

"scope":

OPTIONAL. The scope of the access request as described by Section 3.2.2.1.¶

"grant_type":

REQUIRED. Identifier of the grant type the client uses with the particular token request. This specification defines the values authorization_code, refresh_token, and client_credentials. The grant type determines the further parameters required or supported by the token request. The details of those grant types are defined below.¶

Confidential clients MUST authenticate with the authorization server as described in Section 3.2.1.¶

For example, the client makes the following HTTP request (with extra line breaks for display purposes only):¶

POST /token HTTP/1.1
Host: server.example.com
Authorization: Basic czZCaGRSa3F0MzpnWDFmQmF0M2JW
Content-Type: application/x-www-form-urlencoded

grant_type=authorization_code&code=SplxlOBeZQQYbYS6WxSbIA
&redirect_uri=https%3A%2F%2Fclient%2Eexample%2Ecom%2Fcb
&code_verifier=3641a2d12d66101249cdf7a79c000c1f8c05d2aafcf14bf146497bed

The authorization server MUST:¶

• require client authentication for confidential clients (or clients with other authentication requirements),¶
• authenticate the client if client authentication is included¶

Further grant type specific processing rules apply and are specified with the respective grant type.¶

    scope       = scope-token *( SP scope-token )
    scope-token = 1*( %x21 / %x23-5B / %x5D-7E )

3.2.3. Token Response

If the access token request is valid and authorized, the authorization server issues an access token and optional refresh token.¶

If the request client authentication failed or is invalid, the authorization server returns an error response as described in Section 3.2.3.1.¶

The authorization server issues an access token and optional refresh token by creating an HTTP response content using the application/json media type as defined by [RFC8259] with the following parameters and an HTTP 200 (OK) status code:¶

"access_token":

REQUIRED. The access token issued by the authorization server.¶

"token_type":

REQUIRED. The type of the access token issued as described in Section 5.1. Value is case insensitive.¶

"expires_in":

RECOMMENDED. The lifetime in seconds of the access token. For example, the value 3600 denotes that the access token will expire in one hour from the time the response was generated. If omitted, the authorization server SHOULD provide the expiration time via other means or document the default value.¶

"scope":

RECOMMENDED, if identical to the scope requested by the client; otherwise, REQUIRED. The scope of the access token as described by Section 3.2.2.1.¶

"refresh_token":

OPTIONAL. The refresh token, which can be used to obtain new access tokens based on the grant passed in the corresponding token request.¶

Authorization servers SHOULD determine, based on a risk assessment and their own policies, whether to issue refresh tokens to a certain client. If the authorization server decides not to issue refresh tokens, the client MAY obtain new access tokens by starting the OAuth flow over, for example initiating a new authorization code request. In such a case, the authorization server may utilize cookies and persistent grants to optimize the user experience.¶

If refresh tokens are issued, those refresh tokens MUST be bound to the scope and resource servers as consented by the resource owner. This is to prevent privilege escalation by the legitimate client and reduce the impact of refresh token leakage.¶

The parameters are serialized into a JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) structure by adding each parameter at the highest structure level. Parameter names and string values are included as JSON strings. Numerical values are included as JSON numbers. The order of parameters does not matter and can vary.¶

The authorization server MUST include the HTTP Cache-Control response header field (see Section 5.2 of [RFC9111]) with a value of no-store in any response containing tokens, credentials, or other sensitive information.¶

For example:¶

HTTP/1.1 200 OK
Content-Type: application/json
Cache-Control: no-store

{
  "access_token":"2YotnFZFEjr1zCsicMWpAA",
  "token_type":"Bearer",
  "expires_in":3600,
  "refresh_token":"tGzv3JOkF0XG5Qx2TlKWIA",
  "example_parameter":"example_value"
}

The client MUST ignore unrecognized value names in the response. The sizes of tokens and other values received from the authorization server are left undefined. The client should avoid making assumptions about value sizes. The authorization server SHOULD document the size of any value it issues.¶

HTTP/1.1 400 Bad Request
Content-Type: application/json
Cache-Control: no-store

{
 "error":"invalid_request"
}

4.1.1. Authorization Request

To begin the authorization request, the client builds the authorization request URI by adding parameters to the authorization server's authorization endpoint URI. The client will eventually redirect the user agent to this URI to initiate the request.¶

Clients use a unique secret per authorization request to protect against authorization code injection and CSRF attacks. The client first generates this secret, which it can use at the time of redeeming the authorization code to prove that the client using the authorization code is the same client that requested it.¶

The client constructs the request URI by adding the following parameters to the query component of the authorization endpoint URI using the application/x-www-form-urlencoded format, per Appendix B:¶

"response_type":

REQUIRED. The authorization endpoint supports different sets of request and response pameters. The client determines the type of flow by using a certain response_type value. This specification defines the value code, which must be used to signal that the client wants to use the authorization code flow.¶

Extension response types MAY contain a space-delimited (%x20) list of values, where the order of values does not matter (e.g., response type a b is the same as b a). The meaning of such composite response types is defined by their respective specifications.¶

Some extension response types are defined by ([OpenID]).¶

If an authorization request is missing the response_type parameter, or if the response type is not understood, the authorization server MUST return an error response as described in Section 4.1.2.1.¶

"client_id":

REQUIRED. The client identifier as described in Section 2.2.¶

"code_challenge":

REQUIRED or RECOMMENDED (see Section 7.6). Code challenge.¶

"code_challenge_method":

OPTIONAL, defaults to plain if not present in the request. Code verifier transformation method is S256 or plain.¶

"redirect_uri":

OPTIONAL. As described in Section 2.3.¶

"scope":

OPTIONAL. The scope of the access request as described by Section 3.2.2.1.¶

"state":

OPTIONAL. An opaque value used by the client to maintain state between the request and callback. The authorization server includes this value when redirecting the user agent back to the client.¶

The code_verifier is a unique high-entropy cryptographically random string generated for each authorization request, using the unreserved characters [A-Z] / [a-z] / [0-9] / "-" / "." / "_" / "~", with a minimum length of 43 characters and a maximum length of 128 characters.¶

The client stores the code_verifier temporarily, and calculates the code_challenge which it uses in the authorization request.¶

ABNF for code_verifier is as follows.¶

code-verifier = 43*128unreserved
unreserved = ALPHA / DIGIT / "-" / "." / "_" / "~"
ALPHA = %x41-5A / %x61-7A
DIGIT = %x30-39

NOTE: The code verifier SHOULD have enough entropy to make it impractical to guess the value. It is RECOMMENDED that the output of a suitable random number generator be used to create a 32-octet sequence. The octet sequence is then base64url-encoded to produce a 43-octet URL-safe string to use as the code verifier.¶

The client then creates a code_challenge derived from the code verifier by using one of the following transformations on the code verifier:¶

S256
  code_challenge = BASE64URL-ENCODE(SHA256(ASCII(code_verifier)))

plain
  code_challenge = code_verifier

If the client is capable of using S256, it MUST use S256, as S256 is Mandatory To Implement (MTI) on the server. Clients are permitted to use plain only if they cannot support S256 for some technical reason, for example constrained environments that do not have a hashing function available, and know via out-of-band configuration or via Authorization Server Metadata ([RFC8414]) that the server supports plain.¶

ABNF for code_challenge is as follows.¶

code-challenge = 43*128unreserved
unreserved = ALPHA / DIGIT / "-" / "." / "_" / "~"
ALPHA = %x41-5A / %x61-7A
DIGIT = %x30-39

The properties code_challenge and code_verifier are adopted from the OAuth 2.0 extension known as "Proof-Key for Code Exchange", or PKCE ([RFC7636]) where this technique was originally developed.¶

Authorization servers MUST support the code_challenge and code_verifier parameters.¶

Clients MUST use code_challenge and code_verifier and authorization servers MUST enforce their use except under the conditions described in Section 7.6. In this case, using and enforcing code_challenge and code_verifier as described in the following is still RECOMMENDED.¶

The state and scope parameters SHOULD NOT include sensitive client or resource owner information in plain text, as they can be transmitted over insecure channels or stored insecurely.¶

The client directs the resource owner to the constructed URI using an HTTP redirection, or by other means available to it via the user agent.¶

For example, the client directs the user agent to make the following HTTP request (with extra line breaks for display purposes only):¶

GET /authorize?response_type=code&client_id=s6BhdRkqt3&state=xyz
    &redirect_uri=https%3A%2F%2Fclient%2Eexample%2Ecom%2Fcb
    &code_challenge=6fdkQaPm51l13DSukcAH3Mdx7_ntecHYd1vi3n0hMZY
    &code_challenge_method=S256 HTTP/1.1
Host: server.example.com

The authorization server validates the request to ensure that all required parameters are present and valid.¶

In particular, the authorization server MUST validate the redirect_uri in the request if present, ensuring that it matches one of the registered redirect URIs previously established during client registration (Section 2). When comparing the two URIs the authorization server MUST using simple character-by-character string comparison as defined in [RFC3986], Section 6.2.1.¶

If the request is valid, the authorization server authenticates the resource owner and obtains an authorization decision (by asking the resource owner or by establishing approval via other means).¶

When a decision is established, the authorization server directs the user agent to the provided client redirect URI using an HTTP redirection response, or by other means available to it via the user agent.¶

4.1.2. Authorization Response

If the resource owner grants the access request, the authorization server issues an authorization code and delivers it to the client by adding the following parameters to the query component of the redirect URI using the application/x-www-form-urlencoded format, per Appendix B:¶

"code":

REQUIRED. The authorization code is generated by the authorization server and opaque to the client. The authorization code MUST expire shortly after it is issued to mitigate the risk of leaks. A maximum authorization code lifetime of 10 minutes is RECOMMENDED. The client MUST NOT use the authorization code more than once. If an authorization code is used more than once, the authorization server MUST deny the request and SHOULD revoke (when possible) all access tokens and refresh tokens previously issued based on that authorization code. The authorization code is bound to the client identifier, code challenge and redirect URI.¶

"state":

REQUIRED if the state parameter was present in the client authorization request. The exact value received from the client.¶

"iss":

OPTIONAL. The identifier of the authorization server which the client can use to prevent mixup attacks, if the client interacts with more than one authorization server. See [RFC9207] for additional details on when this parameter is necessary, and how the client can use it to prpevent mixup attacks.¶

For example, the authorization server redirects the user agent by sending the following HTTP response:¶

HTTP/1.1 302 Found
Location: https://client.example.com/cb?code=SplxlOBeZQQYbYS6WxSbIA
          &state=xyz&iss=https://authorization-server.example/

The client MUST ignore unrecognized response parameters. The authorization code string size is left undefined by this specification. The client should avoid making assumptions about code value sizes. The authorization server SHOULD document the size of any value it issues.¶

The authorization server MUST associate the code_challenge and code_challenge_method values with the issued authorization code so the code challenge can be verified later.¶

The exact method that the server uses to associate the code_challenge with the issued code is out of scope for this specification. The code challenge could be stored on the server and associated with the code there. The code_challenge and code_challenge_method values may be stored in encrypted form in the code itself, but the server MUST NOT include the code_challenge value in a response parameter in a form that entities other than the AS can extract.¶

Clients MUST prevent injection (replay) of authorization codes into the authorization response by attackers. Using code_challenge and code_verifier prevents injection of authorization codes since the authorization server will reject a token request with a mismatched code_verifier. See Section 7.6 for more details.¶

HTTP/1.1 302 Found
Location: https://client.example.com/cb?error=access_denied
          &state=xyz&iss=https://authorization-server.example/

4.1.3. Token Endpoint Extension

The authorization grant type is identified at the token endpoint with the grant_type value of authorization_code.¶

If this value is set, the following additional token request parameters beyond Section 3.2.2 are required:¶

"code":

REQUIRED. The authorization code received from the authorization server.¶

"redirect_uri":

REQUIRED, if the redirect_uri parameter was included in the authorization request as described in Section 4.1.1, in which case their values MUST be identical. If no redirect_uri was included in the authorization request, this parameter is OPTIONAL.¶

"code_verifier":

REQUIRED, if the code_challenge parameter was included in the authorization request. MUST NOT be used otherwise. The original code verifier string.¶

For example, the client makes the following HTTP request (with extra line breaks for display purposes only):¶

POST /token HTTP/1.1
Host: server.example.com
Authorization: Basic czZCaGRSa3F0MzpnWDFmQmF0M2JW
Content-Type: application/x-www-form-urlencoded

grant_type=authorization_code&code=SplxlOBeZQQYbYS6WxSbIA
&redirect_uri=https%3A%2F%2Fclient%2Eexample%2Ecom%2Fcb
&code_verifier=3641a2d12d66101249cdf7a79c000c1f8c05d2aafcf14bf146497bed

In addition to the processing rules in Section 3.2.2, the authorization server MUST:¶

• ensure that the authorization code was issued to the authenticated confidential client, or if the client is public, ensure that the code was issued to client_id in the request,¶
• verify that the authorization code is valid,¶
• verify that the code_verifier parameter is present if and only if a code_challenge parameter was present in the authorization request,¶
• if a code_verifier is present, verify the code_verifier by calculating the code challenge from the received code_verifier and comparing it with the previously associated code_challenge, after first transforming it according to the code_challenge_method method specified by the client, and¶
• ensure that the redirect_uri parameter is present if the redirect_uri parameter was included in the initial authorization request as described in Section 4.1.1, and if included ensure that their values are identical.¶

4.2.1. Token Endpoint Extension

The authorization grant type is identified at the token endpoint with the grant_type value of client_credentials.¶

If this value is set, no additional parameters beyond Section 3.2.2 are required/supported:¶

For example, the client makes the following HTTP request using transport-layer security (with extra line breaks for display purposes only):¶

POST /token HTTP/1.1
Host: server.example.com
Authorization: Basic czZCaGRSa3F0MzpnWDFmQmF0M2JW
Content-Type: application/x-www-form-urlencoded

grant_type=client_credentials

The authorization server MUST authenticate the client.¶

4.3.1. Token Endpoint Extension

The authorization grant type is identified at the token endpoint with the grant_type value of refresh_token.¶

If this value is set, the following additional parameters beyond Section 3.2.2 are required/supported:¶

"refresh_token":

REQUIRED. The refresh token issued to the client.¶

Because refresh tokens are typically long-lasting credentials used to request additional access tokens, the refresh token is bound to the client to which it was issued. Confidential clients MUST authenticate with the authorization server as described in Section 3.2.1.¶

For example, the client makes the following HTTP request using transport-layer security (with extra line breaks for display purposes only):¶

POST /token HTTP/1.1
Host: server.example.com
Authorization: Basic czZCaGRSa3F0MzpnWDFmQmF0M2JW
Content-Type: application/x-www-form-urlencoded

grant_type=refresh_token&refresh_token=tGzv3JOkF0XG5Qx2TlKWIA

In addition to the processing rules in Section 3.2.2, the authorization server MUST:¶

• validate the refresh token.¶

Authorization servers SHOULD utilize one of these methods to detect refresh token replay by malicious actors for public clients:¶

• Sender-constrained refresh tokens: the authorization server cryptographically binds the refresh token to a certain client instance by utilizing [I-D.ietf-oauth-token-binding], [RFC8705], [I-D.ietf-oauth-dpop], or another suitable method.¶
• Refresh token rotation: the authorization server issues a new refresh token with every access token refresh response. The previous refresh token is invalidated but information about the relationship is retained by the authorization server. If a refresh token is compromised and subsequently used by both the attacker and the legitimate client, one of them will present an invalidated refresh token, which will inform the authorization server of the breach. The authorization server cannot determine which party submitted the invalid refresh token, but it will revoke the active refresh token. This stops the attack at the cost of forcing the legitimate client to obtain a fresh authorization grant.¶

Implementation note: the grant to which a refresh token belongs may be encoded into the refresh token itself. This can enable an authorization server to efficiently determine the grant to which a refresh token belongs, and by extension, all refresh tokens that need to be revoked. Authorization servers MUST ensure the integrity of the refresh token value in this case, for example, using signatures.¶

4.3.2. Refresh Token Response

If valid and authorized, the authorization server issues an access token as described in Section 3.2.3.¶

The authorization server MAY issue a new refresh token, in which case the client MUST discard the old refresh token and replace it with the new refresh token.¶

The authorization server MAY revoke the old refresh token after issuing a new refresh token to the client. If a new refresh token is issued, the refresh token scope MUST be identical to that of the refresh token included by the client in the request.¶

Authorization servers MAY revoke refresh tokens automatically in case of a security event, such as:¶

• password change¶
• logout at the authorization server¶

Refresh tokens SHOULD expire if the client has been inactive for some time, i.e., the refresh token has not been used to obtain new access tokens for some time. The expiration time is at the discretion of the authorization server. It might be a global value or determined based on the client policy or the grant associated with the refresh token (and its sensitivity).¶

5.2.1. Authenticated Requests

This section defines two methods of sending Bearer tokens in resource requests to resource servers. Clients MUST use one of the two methods defined below, and MUST NOT use more than one method to transmit the token in each request.¶

In particular, clients MUST NOT send the access token in a URI query parameter, and resource servers MUST ignore access tokens in a URI query parameter.¶

 GET /resource HTTP/1.1
 Host: server.example.com
 Authorization: Bearer mF_9.B5f-4.1JqM

b64token    = 1*( ALPHA / DIGIT /
                 "-" / "." / "_" / "~" / "+" / "/" ) *"="
credentials = "Bearer" 1*SP b64token

POST /resource HTTP/1.1
Host: server.example.com
Content-Type: application/x-www-form-urlencoded

access_token=mF_9.B5f-4.1JqM

5.2.2. Access Token Validation

After receiving the access token, the resource server MUST check that the access token is not yet expired, is authorized to access the requested resource, was issued with the appropriate scope, and meets other policy requirements of the resource server to access the protected resource.¶

Access tokens generally fall into two categories: reference tokens or self-encoded tokens. Reference tokens can be validated by querying the authorization server or looking up the token in a token database, whereas self-encoded tokens contain the authorization information in an encrypted and/or signed string which can be extracted by the resource server.¶

A standardized method to query the authorization server to check the validity of an access token is defined in Token Introspection ([RFC7662]).¶

A standardized method of encoding information in a token string is defined in JWT Profile for Access Tokens ([RFC9068]).¶

See Section 7.1 for additional considerations around creating and validating access tokens.¶

5.2.3. The WWW-Authenticate Response Header Field

If the protected resource request does not include authentication credentials or does not contain an access token that enables access to the protected resource, the resource server MUST include the HTTP WWW-Authenticate response header field; it MAY include it in response to other conditions as well. The WWW-Authenticate header field uses the framework defined by HTTP/1.1 [RFC7235].¶

All challenges for this token type MUST use the auth-scheme value Bearer. This scheme MUST be followed by one or more auth-param values. The auth-param attributes used or defined by this specification for this token type are as follows. Other auth-param attributes MAY be used as well.¶

A realm attribute MAY be included to indicate the scope of protection in the manner described in HTTP/1.1 [RFC7235]. The realm attribute MUST NOT appear more than once.¶

The scope attribute is defined in Section 3.2.2.1. The scope attribute is a space-delimited list of case-sensitive scope values indicating the required scope of the access token for accessing the requested resource. scope values are implementation defined; there is no centralized registry for them; allowed values are defined by the authorization server. The order of scope values is not significant. In some cases, the scope value will be used when requesting a new access token with sufficient scope of access to utilize the protected resource. Use of the scope attribute is OPTIONAL. The scope attribute MUST NOT appear more than once. The scope value is intended for programmatic use and is not meant to be displayed to end-users.¶

Two example scope values follow; these are taken from the OpenID Connect [OpenID.Messages] and the Open Authentication Technology Committee (OATC) Online Multimedia Authorization Protocol [OMAP] OAuth 2.0 use cases, respectively:¶

scope="openid profile email"
scope="urn:example:channel=HBO&urn:example:rating=G,PG-13"

If the protected resource request included an access token and failed authentication, the resource server SHOULD include the error attribute to provide the client with the reason why the access request was declined. The parameter value is described in Section 5.2.4. In addition, the resource server MAY include the error_description attribute to provide developers a human-readable explanation that is not meant to be displayed to end-users. It also MAY include the error_uri attribute with an absolute URI identifying a human-readable web page explaining the error. The error, error_description, and error_uri attributes MUST NOT appear more than once.¶

Values for the scope attribute (specified in Appendix A.4) MUST NOT include characters outside the set %x21 / %x23-5B / %x5D-7E for representing scope values and %x20 for delimiters between scope values. Values for the error and error_description attributes (specified in Appendixes A.7 and A.8) MUST NOT include characters outside the set %x20-21 / %x23-5B / %x5D-7E. Values for the error_uri attribute (specified in Appendix A.9 of) MUST conform to the URI-reference syntax and thus MUST NOT include characters outside the set %x21 / %x23-5B / %x5D-7E.¶

For example, in response to a protected resource request without authentication:¶

HTTP/1.1 401 Unauthorized
WWW-Authenticate: Bearer realm="example"

And in response to a protected resource request with an authentication attempt using an expired access token:¶

HTTP/1.1 401 Unauthorized
WWW-Authenticate: Bearer realm="example",
                  error="invalid_token",
                  error_description="The access token expired"

5.2.4. Error Codes

When a request fails, the resource server responds using the appropriate HTTP status code (typically, 400, 401, 403, or 405) and includes one of the following error codes in the response:¶

"invalid_request":

The request is missing a required parameter, includes an unsupported parameter or parameter value, repeats the same parameter, uses more than one method for including an access token, or is otherwise malformed. The resource server SHOULD respond with the HTTP 400 (Bad Request) status code.¶

"invalid_token":

The access token provided is expired, revoked, malformed, or invalid for other reasons. The resource SHOULD respond with the HTTP 401 (Unauthorized) status code. The client MAY request a new access token and retry the protected resource request.¶

"insufficient_scope":

The request requires higher privileges (scopes) than provided by the scopes granted to the client and represented by the access token. The resource server SHOULD respond with the HTTP 403 (Forbidden) status code and MAY include the scope attribute with the scope necessary to access the protected resource.¶

If the request lacks any authentication information (e.g., the client was unaware that authentication is necessary or attempted using an unsupported authentication method), the resource server SHOULD NOT include an error code or other error information.¶

For example:¶

HTTP/1.1 401 Unauthorized
WWW-Authenticate: Bearer realm="example"

5.3.1. Extension Token Types

[RFC6750] establishes a common registry in Section 11.4 of [RFC6749] for error values to be shared among OAuth token authentication schemes.¶

New authentication schemes designed primarily for OAuth token authentication SHOULD define a mechanism for providing an error status code to the client, in which the error values allowed are registered in the error registry established by this specification.¶

Such schemes MAY limit the set of valid error codes to a subset of the registered values. If the error code is returned using a named parameter, the parameter name SHOULD be error.¶

Other schemes capable of being used for OAuth token authentication, but not primarily designed for that purpose, MAY bind their error values to the registry in the same manner.¶

New authentication schemes MAY choose to also specify the use of the error_description and error_uri parameters to return error information in a manner parallel to their usage in this specification.¶

7.1.1. Security Threats

The following list presents several common threats against protocols utilizing some form of tokens. This list of threats is based on NIST Special Publication 800-63 [NIST800-63].¶

7.1.2. Threat Mitigation

A large range of threats can be mitigated by protecting the contents of the access token by using a digital signature.¶

Alternatively, a bearer token can contain a reference to authorization information, rather than encoding the information directly. Using a reference may require an extra interaction between a server and the access token issuer to resolve the reference to the authorization information. The mechanics of such an interaction are not defined by this specification.¶

This document does not specify the encoding or the contents of the access token; hence, detailed recommendations about the means of guaranteeing access token integrity protection are outside the scope of this specification. One example of an encoding and signing mechanism for access tokens is described in JSON Web Token Profile for Access Tokens [RFC9068].¶

To deal with access token redirects, it is important for the authorization server to include the identity of the intended recipients (the audience), typically a single resource server (or a list of resource servers), in the token. Restricting the use of the token to a specific scope is also RECOMMENDED.¶

If cookies are transmitted without TLS protection, any information contained in them is at risk of disclosure. Therefore, Bearer tokens MUST NOT be stored in cookies that can be sent in the clear, as any information in them is at risk of disclosure. See "HTTP State Management Mechanism" [RFC6265] for security considerations about cookies.¶

In some deployments, including those utilizing load balancers, the TLS connection to the resource server terminates prior to the actual server that provides the resource. This could leave the token unprotected between the front-end server where the TLS connection terminates and the back-end server that provides the resource. In such deployments, sufficient measures MUST be employed to ensure confidentiality of the access token between the front-end and back-end servers; encryption of the token is one such possible measure.¶

7.1.3. Summary of Recommendations

7.1.4. Token Replay Prevention

A sender-constrained access token scopes the applicability of an access token to a certain sender. This sender is obliged to demonstrate knowledge of a certain secret as prerequisite for the acceptance of that access token at the recipient (e.g., a resource server).¶

Authorization and resource servers SHOULD use mechanisms for sender- constrained access tokens to prevent token replay as described in Section 4.8.1.1.2 of [I-D.ietf-oauth-security-topics]. The use of Mutual TLS for OAuth 2.0 [RFC8705] is RECOMMENDED.¶

It is RECOMMENDED to use end-to-end TLS. If TLS traffic needs to be terminated at an intermediary, refer to Section 4.11 of [I-D.ietf-oauth-security-topics] for further security advice.¶

7.1.5. Access Token Privilege Restriction

The privileges associated with an access token SHOULD be restricted to the minimum required for the particular application or use case. This prevents clients from exceeding the privileges authorized by the resource owner. It also prevents users from exceeding their privileges authorized by the respective security policy. Privilege restrictions also help to reduce the impact of access token leakage.¶

In particular, access tokens SHOULD be restricted to certain resource servers (audience restriction), preferably to a single resource server. To put this into effect, the authorization server associates the access token with certain resource servers and every resource server is obliged to verify, for every request, whether the access token sent with that request was meant to be used for that particular resource server. If not, the resource server MUST refuse to serve the respective request. Clients and authorization servers MAY utilize the parameters scope or resource as specified in this document and [RFC8707], respectively, to determine the resource server they want to access.¶

Additionally, access tokens SHOULD be restricted to certain resources and actions on resource servers or resources. To put this into effect, the authorization server associates the access token with the respective resource and actions and every resource server is obliged to verify, for every request, whether the access token sent with that request was meant to be used for that particular action on the particular resource. If not, the resource server must refuse to serve the respective request. Clients and authorization servers MAY utilize the parameter scope and authorization_details as specified in [I-D.ietf-oauth-rar] to determine those resources and/or actions.¶

7.3.1. Impersonation of Native Apps

As stated above, the authorization server SHOULD NOT process authorization requests automatically without user consent or interaction, except when the identity of the client can be assured. This includes the case where the user has previously approved an authorization request for a given client ID -- unless the identity of the client can be proven, the request SHOULD be processed as if no previous request had been approved.¶

Measures such as claimed https scheme redirects MAY be accepted by authorization servers as identity proof. Some operating systems may offer alternative platform-specific identity features that MAY be accepted, as appropriate.¶

7.3.2. Access Token Privilege Restriction

The client SHOULD request access tokens with the minimal scope necessary. The authorization server SHOULD take the client identity into account when choosing how to honor the requested scope and MAY issue an access token with less rights than requested.¶

The privileges associated with an access token SHOULD be restricted to the minimum required for the particular application or use case. This prevents clients from exceeding the privileges authorized by the resource owner. It also prevents users from exceeding their privileges authorized by the respective security policy. Privilege restrictions also help to reduce the impact of access token leakage.¶

In particular, access tokens SHOULD be restricted to certain resource servers (audience restriction), preferably to a single resource server. To put this into effect, the authorization server associates the access token with certain resource servers and every resource server is obliged to verify, for every request, whether the access token sent with that request was meant to be used for that particular resource server. If not, the resource server MUST refuse to serve the respective request. Clients and authorization servers MAY utilize the parameters scope or resource as specified in [RFC8707], respectively, to determine the resource server they want to access.¶

7.3.3. Access Token Replay Prevention

Additionally, access tokens SHOULD be restricted to certain resources and actions on resource servers or resources. To put this into effect, the authorization server associates the access token with the respective resource and actions and every resource server is obliged to verify, for every request, whether the access token sent with that request was meant to be used for that particular action on the particular resource. If not, the resource server must refuse to serve the respective request. Clients and authorization servers MAY utilize the parameter scope and authorization_details as specified in [I-D.ietf-oauth-rar] to determine those resources and/or actions.¶

Authorization and resource servers SHOULD use mechanisms for sender-constrained access tokens to prevent token replay as described in (#pop_tokens). A sender-constrained access token scopes the applicability of an access token to a certain sender. This sender is obliged to demonstrate knowledge of a certain secret as prerequisite for the acceptance of that access token at the recipient (e.g., a resource server). The use of Mutual TLS for OAuth 2.0 [RFC8705] is RECOMMENDED.¶

7.5.1. Loopback Redirect Considerations in Native Apps

Loopback interface redirect URIs MAY use the http scheme (i.e., without TLS). This is acceptable for loopback interface redirect URIs as the HTTP request never leaves the device.¶

Clients should open the network port only when starting the authorization request and close it once the response is returned.¶

Clients should listen on the loopback network interface only, in order to avoid interference by other network actors.¶

Clients should use loopback IP literals rather than the string localhost as described in Section 8.4.2.¶

7.5.2. HTTP 307 Redirect

An AS which redirects a request that potentially contains user credentials MUST NOT use the 307 status code (see Section 15.4.8 of [RFC9110]) for redirection. If an HTTP redirection (and not, for example, JavaScript) is used for such a request, AS SHOULD use the status code 303 "See Other".¶

At the authorization endpoint, a typical protocol flow is that the AS prompts the user to enter their credentials in a form that is then submitted (using the POST method) back to the authorization server. The AS checks the credentials and, if successful, redirects the user agent to the client's redirect URI.¶

If the status code 307 were used for redirection, the user agent would send the user credentials via a POST request to the client.¶

This discloses the sensitive credentials to the client. If the relying party is malicious, it can use the credentials to impersonate the user at the AS.¶

The behavior might be unexpected for developers, but is defined in Section 15.4.8 of [RFC9110]. This status code does not require the user agent to rewrite the POST request to a GET request and thereby drop the form data in the POST request content.¶

In HTTP [RFC9110], only the status code 303 unambigiously enforces rewriting the HTTP POST request to an HTTP GET request. For all other status codes, including the popular 302, user agents can opt not to rewrite POST to GET requests and therefore to reveal the user credentials to the client. (In practice, however, most user agents will only show this behaviour for 307 redirects.)¶

Therefore, the RECOMMENDED status code for HTTP redirects is 303.¶

7.13.1. Client as Open Redirector

Clients MUST NOT expose open redirectors. Attackers may use open redirectors to produce URLs pointing to the client and utilize them to exfiltrate authorization codes and access tokens, as described in (#redir_uri_open_redir). Another abuse case is to produce URLs that appear to point to the client. This might trick users into trusting the URL and follow it in their browser. This can be abused for phishing.¶

In order to prevent open redirection, clients should only redirect if the target URLs are whitelisted or if the origin and integrity of a request can be authenticated. Countermeasures against open redirection are described by OWASP [owasp_redir].¶

7.13.2. Authorization Server as Open Redirector

Just as with clients, attackers could try to utilize a user's trust in the authorization server (and its URL in particular) for performing phishing attacks. OAuth authorization servers regularly redirect users to other web sites (the clients), but must do so in a safe way.¶

Section 4.1.2.1 already prevents open redirects by stating that the AS MUST NOT automatically redirect the user agent in case of an invalid combination of client_id and redirect_uri.¶

However, an attacker could also utilize a correctly registered redirect URI to perform phishing attacks. The attacker could, for example, register a client via dynamic client registration [RFC7591] and intentionally send an erroneous authorization request, e.g., by using an invalid scope value, thus instructing the AS to redirect the user agent to its phishing site.¶

The AS MUST take precautions to prevent this threat. Based on its risk assessment, the AS needs to decide whether it can trust the redirect URI and SHOULD only automatically redirect the user agent if it trusts the redirect URI. If the URI is not trusted, the AS MAY inform the user and rely on the user to make the correct decision.¶

8.1.1. Client Authentication of Native Apps

Secrets that are statically included as part of an app distributed to multiple users should not be treated as confidential secrets, as one user may inspect their copy and learn the shared secret. For this reason, it is NOT RECOMMENDED for authorization servers to require client authentication of public native apps clients using a shared secret, as this serves little value beyond client identification which is already provided by the client_id request parameter.¶

Authorization servers that still require a statically included shared secret for native app clients MUST treat the client as a public client (as defined in Section 2.1), and not accept the secret as proof of the client's identity. Without additional measures, such clients are subject to client impersonation (see Section 7.3.1).¶

8.4.1. Claimed "https" Scheme URI Redirection

Some operating systems allow apps to claim https URIs (see Section 4.2.2 of [RFC9110]) in the domains they control. When the browser encounters a claimed URI, instead of the page being loaded in the browser, the native app is launched with the URI supplied as a launch parameter.¶

Such URIs can be used as redirect URIs by native apps. They are indistinguishable to the authorization server from a regular web- based client redirect URI. An example is:¶

https://app.example.com/oauth2redirect/example-provider

As the redirect URI alone is not enough to distinguish public native app clients from confidential web clients, it is REQUIRED in Section 8.1 that the client type be recorded during client registration to enable the server to determine the client type and act accordingly.¶

App-claimed https scheme redirect URIs have some advantages compared to other native app redirect options in that the identity of the destination app is guaranteed to the authorization server by the operating system. For this reason, native apps SHOULD use them over the other options where possible.¶

8.4.2. Loopback Interface Redirection

Native apps that are able to open a port on the loopback network interface without needing special permissions (typically, those on desktop operating systems) can use the loopback interface to receive the OAuth redirect.¶

Loopback redirect URIs use the http scheme and are constructed with the loopback IP literal and whatever port the client is listening on.¶

That is, http://127.0.0.1:{port}/{path} for IPv4, and http://[::1]:{port}/{path} for IPv6. An example redirect using the IPv4 loopback interface with a randomly assigned port:¶

http://127.0.0.1:51004/oauth2redirect/example-provider

An example redirect using the IPv6 loopback interface with a randomly assigned port:¶

http://[::1]:61023/oauth2redirect/example-provider

While redirect URIs using the name localhost (i.e., http://localhost:{port}/{path}) function similarly to loopback IP redirects, the use of localhost is NOT RECOMMENDED. Specifying a redirect URI with the loopback IP literal rather than localhost avoids inadvertently listening on network interfaces other than the loopback interface. It is also less susceptible to client-side firewalls and misconfigured host name resolution on the user's device.¶

The authorization server MUST allow any port to be specified at the time of the request for loopback IP redirect URIs, to accommodate clients that obtain an available ephemeral port from the operating system at the time of the request.¶

Clients SHOULD NOT assume that the device supports a particular version of the Internet Protocol. It is RECOMMENDED that clients attempt to bind to the loopback interface using both IPv4 and IPv6 and use whichever is available.¶

8.4.3. Private-Use URI Scheme Redirection

Many mobile and desktop computing platforms support inter-app communication via URIs by allowing apps to register private-use URI schemes (sometimes colloquially referred to as "custom URL schemes") like com.example.app. When the browser or another app attempts to load a URI with a private-use URI scheme, the app that registered it is launched to handle the request.¶

Many environments that support private-use URI schemes do not provide a mechanism to claim a scheme and prevent other parties from using another application's scheme. As such, clients using private-use URI schemes are vulnerable to potential attacks on their redirect URIs, so this option should only be used if the previously mentioned more secure options are not available.¶

To perform an authorization request with a private-use URI scheme redirect, the native app launches the browser with a standard authorization request, but one where the redirect URI utilizes a private-use URI scheme it registered with the operating system.¶

When choosing a URI scheme to associate with the app, apps MUST use a URI scheme based on a domain name under their control, expressed in reverse order, as recommended by Section 3.8 of [RFC7595] for private-use URI schemes.¶

For example, an app that controls the domain name app.example.com can use com.example.app as their scheme. Some authorization servers assign client identifiers based on domain names, for example, client1234.usercontent.example.net, which can also be used as the domain name for the scheme when reversed in the same manner. A scheme such as myapp, however, would not meet this requirement, as it is not based on a domain name.¶

When there are multiple apps by the same publisher, care must be taken so that each scheme is unique within that group. On platforms that use app identifiers based on reverse-order domain names, those identifiers can be reused as the private-use URI scheme for the OAuth redirect to help avoid this problem.¶

Following the requirements of Section 3.2 of [RFC3986], as there is no naming authority for private-use URI scheme redirects, only a single slash (/) appears after the scheme component. A complete example of a redirect URI utilizing a private-use URI scheme is:¶

com.example.app:/oauth2redirect/example-provider

When the authorization server completes the request, it redirects to the client's redirect URI as it would normally. As the redirect URI uses a private-use URI scheme, it results in the operating system launching the native app, passing in the URI as a launch parameter. Then, the native app uses normal processing for the authorization response.¶

8.5.1. Embedded User Agents in Native Apps

Embedded user agents are a technically possible method for authorizing native apps. These embedded user agents are unsafe for use by third parties to the authorization server by definition, as the app that hosts the embedded user agent can access the user's full authentication credentials, not just the OAuth authorization grant that was intended for the app.¶

In typical web-view-based implementations of embedded user agents, the host application can record every keystroke entered in the login form to capture usernames and passwords, automatically submit forms to bypass user consent, and copy session cookies and use them to perform authenticated actions as the user.¶

Even when used by trusted apps belonging to the same party as the authorization server, embedded user agents violate the principle of least privilege by having access to more powerful credentials than they need, potentially increasing the attack surface.¶

Encouraging users to enter credentials in an embedded user agent without the usual address bar and visible certificate validation features that browsers have makes it impossible for the user to know if they are signing in to the legitimate site; even when they are, it trains them that it's OK to enter credentials without validating the site first.¶

Aside from the security concerns, embedded user agents do not share the authentication state with other apps or the browser, requiring the user to log in for every authorization request, which is often considered an inferior user experience.¶

8.5.2. Fake External User-Agents in Native Apps

The native app that is initiating the authorization request has a large degree of control over the user interface and can potentially present a fake external user agent, that is, an embedded user agent made to appear as an external user agent.¶

When all good actors are using external user agents, the advantage is that it is possible for security experts to detect bad actors, as anyone faking an external user agent is provably bad. On the other hand, if good and bad actors alike are using embedded user agents, bad actors don't need to fake anything, making them harder to detect. Once a malicious app is detected, it may be possible to use this knowledge to blacklist the app's signature in malware scanning software, take removal action (in the case of apps distributed by app stores) and other steps to reduce the impact and spread of the malicious app.¶

Authorization servers can also directly protect against fake external user agents by requiring an authentication factor only available to true external user agents.¶

Users who are particularly concerned about their security when using in-app browser tabs may also take the additional step of opening the request in the full browser from the in-app browser tab and complete the authorization there, as most implementations of the in-app browser tab pattern offer such functionality.¶

8.5.3. Malicious External User-Agents in Native Apps

If a malicious app is able to configure itself as the default handler for https scheme URIs in the operating system, it will be able to intercept authorization requests that use the default browser and abuse this position of trust for malicious ends such as phishing the user.¶

This attack is not confined to OAuth; a malicious app configured in this way would present a general and ongoing risk to the user beyond OAuth usage by native apps. Many operating systems mitigate this issue by requiring an explicit user action to change the default handler for http and https scheme URIs.¶